Wheel Alignment

Aligning a vehicle's front wheels is the job of balancing the steering angles with the physical forces being exerted. The steering angles are; caster, camber, toe-in, steering axis inclination, and toe-out on turns. The physical forces are gravity, momentum, friction, and centrifugal force. Since so many factors are involved in front wheel alignment, it is also called front end alignment, steering alignment, steering balance, or steering geometry. Alignment is more than just adjusting the angularity of the front wheels. With steadily increasing production of front wheel drive vehicles with independent rear suspension, four wheel alignment is often required. For ideal wheel alignment, certain conditions would have to be met. Both front tires will be the same brand, size, and type. Each will have the same degree of tread wear, and be inflated with the same pressure. Each wheel is properly and equally adjusted for angularity, each tire will maintain the same area of tread contact on a smooth road surface. Obviously, it is impossible to maintain all these requirements. The steering control rods are used to adjust toe-in and toe-out. The upper and/or lower control arms are adjusted to affect the camber angle. Caster is usually not adjustable. With all the weight balance factors to be checked out and corrected, it is obvious that wheel alignment is more than just an adjustment of the steering angles. The whole theory of wheel alignment revolves around balanced weight distribution on the wheels and proper tire tread contact with the road surface while the vehicle is in motion.

Weight Balance on The Springs

The springs control the up-and-down motion of the car and so, the height of the car above the road. If one or more of the springs is collapsed or broken, it causes an unbalanced distribution of weight. This unbalance creates a lopsided appearance, puts an added strain on the related parts, and changes the angularity of the front wheels. This condition may also occur when the load is distributed unequally. In fact, anything that changes the ratio of weight on the springs will have a definite bearing on the alignment angles and on the area of tire-to-road contact. This can wear tires unevenly, making it necessary to replace them prematurely.

Wheel (Slave) Cylinder

The wheel cylinder, also called the brake cylinder or slave cylinder, is a cylinder in which movable piston(s) convert hydraulic fluid pressure into mechanical force. The piston(s) within the cylinder move the brake shoes or pads against the braking surface of the drum or rotor. There is one cylinder (or more in some systems) for each wheel. The cylinder is usually made up of a single-bore cylinder casting, an internal compression spring, two pistons, two rubber cups or seals, two rubber boots to prevent entry of dirt and water, and a bleeder screw (valve). In drum type brakes, the wheel cylinder is fitted with push rods that extend from the outer side of each piston through a rubber boot, where they bear against the toe end of each brake shoe. In disc brakes, the wheel cylinder is part of the caliper. As the brake pedal is depressed, it moves pistons within the master cylinder, forcing hydraulic brake fluid through the brake lines and into cylinders at each wheel. The fluid under pressure causes the wheel cylinders' pistons to move, which forces the shoes or pads against the brake drums or rotors. Two-way pressure is applied when the wheel cylinder is activated. Brake fluid enters the center of the cylinder, forcing the pistons apart. Pushrods at the piston ends then apply equal pressure to the brake shoes. A return spring pulls the pistons together when pressure is released.

Wheel Balance and Unbalance

It is important to check to see that the wheel and tire assemblies are in balance before aligning the vehicle. "Static" balance is the equal distribution of weight around the wheel and tire assembly. "Dynamic" balance is the equal distribution of weight on each side of the vertical centerline of the wheel and tire assembly. "Unbalance" (or imbalance) exists when the weight is distributed unequally around the horizontal axis of the wheel and tire assembly. Unbalance can exist in the tire, wheel, brake drum or rotor, or even in the hub. It also occurs in any combination of these components. Unbalance can be detected with the aid of special equipment, which usually indicates the proper location for wheel weights to restore the proper balance. Even with regular maintenance, however, uneven tire wear can result from drivers' habits, such as side wear from excessive cornering speeds. To counteract uneven wear that leads to unbalance, the tire industry recommends that tires should be rotated every six to eight thousand miles.

Wheelbase Balance

Another important factor when locating axles and spindles for wheel balance is the wheelbase measurement. Wheelbase is the distance between the center of the front wheel and center of the rear wheel. This distance (left front to left rear, right front to right rear with wheels in the straight ahead position) must be exactly the same on each side for proper weight balance. Correct wheelbase contributes to the ability of the car's rear wheel to follow directly in line with the front wheels (called "track"). Shorter wheelbases allow sharper turning radiuses, and longer wheelbases give a smoother ride and increased stability.

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Wheels

Wheels come in many different designs and usually fall into two categories: stamped sheet metal and machine castings. Some wheels are a combination of the two. Usually cast alloy wheels are higher priced, but have greater strength than stamped sheet metal wheels. Stamped sheet metal wheels are the most common, because they are less expensive to produce and are adequate for most uses. Some cars have wire wheels which consist of three basic components; inner rings, outer rings, and a series of spokes which connect the two. Cast aluminum wheels are very popular, magnesium wheels are also popular. Both are popular because they are light-weight and strong.

When The Car Doesn't Work

BEFORE a car needs repairs, the owner should check the car's manual to see if maintenance is needed. Failure to care for the car, and ignoring the initial warning signs (funny noises, problems that "fix themselves", etc) will produce more extensive and costly damage in the long run. I. Starting Problems Problems encountered in starting are usually due to the condition of the battery (clicking noises, no sound or slow grinding). These problems can often be solved by jump starting or charging the battery. If there is no response after trying these cures, it will probably be necessary to get experienced help or have your car inspected and serviced by a professional. II. Moving Problems 1. Problems with the engine hesitating, cutting out, being weak, or having difficulty with the idling should all be carefully inspected by an experienced mechanic. Overheating may be due to a need for additional coolant in the radiator or a need to unload excess weight (as when pulling a trailer). Turn off all accessories; i.e., the air conditioner. If this doesn't help, get professional help. 2. Transmission problems should always be inspected for repair or adjustment by a professional mechanic. If the car is driveable, drive slowly and carefully to the nearest service facility. If in doubt about driving the car, call a tow truck. III. Stopping Problems: When the brakes fail to hold, or if they squeal, grab or drag, they should be inspected and cared for at a specialized brake shop. When the problem is due to worn tires, the tires should be replaced at once before damaging other, more expensive elements of the car.

Why Is It Called An "Automobile"

First let us consider the name, "automobile." Now, a "car" could have been called anything and, sometimes, it is. Oliver Evans applied for a U.S. patent in Philadelphia in 1792 on a steam land carriage, which he called the "oruktor amphibolos!" We could have been strapped with that name forever, if it weren't for more reasonable individuals working on the same concept. Martini was a 14th Century Italian painter, who had been trained in engineering. He designed (on paper) a man-propelled carriage, mounted on four wheels. Each wheel was powered by a hand-turned capstan arrangement. Gearing was also provided to transmit the rotation of each capstan to the wheel below. It may have looked good on paper, but the four turners of the capstans couldn't have kept it up for long before they fell over with exhaustion. It is lucky for us that Martini did not name his invention after himself, as many inventors do. If he had, and the word had survived to the present, it might be a little confusing. If we were offered a "Martini," we might not know whether to drive it or drink it! (Representatives of MADD and SADD would probably tell us to park it!) We could be reading headlines like: ORUKTOR ACCIDENT TAKES THREE LIVES or UNITED MARTINI WORKERS ON STRIKE. The really historical (and fortunate) aspect of Martini's design is the name that he gave it: "automobile," from the Greek word, "auto," (self) and the Latin word, "mobils," (moving). "Car," on the other hand, comes from an ancient Celtic word, "carrus," meaning cart or wagon. George B. Selden, an attorney in Rochester, New York, applied for, and finally received, a patent for a "road machine" in 1879. The Duryea brothers (1895) called their products "motor wagons." In 1896, Henry Ford introduced an experimental car labeled the "Quadricycle." Newspapers used words like autometon, motor-vique, oleo locomotive, autokenetic, buggyaut, motor carriage, autobaine, automotor horse, diamote, motorig, mocole, and, of course, the horseless carriage. In 1895, H. H. Kohlsaat, publisher of the Chicago Times-Herald, offered a $500.00 prize for the best name for the motorized vehicles of the day. The judges picked "motorcycle" as the winner. "Quadricycle" was a favorite, as was "petrocar." The word "automobile" wasn't even in the running! But in 1897, The New York Times prophesied, "...the new mechanical wagon with the awful name -- automobile...has come to stay..." Many of the words that are associated with automobiles are derived from the French; i.e, garage, chauffeur, limousine, and chassis are just some examples.

Windshield Washers

All cars use an electric pump-operated windshield washer with a positive displacement washer pump. On some, the motor is placed in the washer reservoir, while on others, it is driven by a wiper motor. When the pump is attached to the wiper motor, the four lobe cam starts a spring-loaded follower, but the pump does not operate all the time that the wiper motor is running. This is because the pumping mechanism is locked out and pumping action occurs. A plunger is pulled toward the coil, allowing the ratchet pawl to engage the ratchet wheel, which begins to rotate, one tooth at a time. Each lobe of the cam starts the follower. The follower moves the piston actuator plate and piston away from the valve assembly and compresses the piston spring, creating a vacuum in the pump cylinder through the intake valve. As the high point of each cam lobe passes the follower, the piston spring expands, forcing the piston toward the valves. This pressurizes the washer solution so it flows out the exhaust valves to the spray nozzles.

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Crash and Safety Features

What actually happens in a collision? The first part of that answer is that there are two collisions. The first collision occurs when the vehicle runs into another object. The second collision is when the occupant(s) hit the inside of the car. Neither a seat belt nor an air bag can do anything about the first collision, but they can be a great help to you in the second collision. They can minimize the impact between you and the interior of the car. Safety belt use is more than a personal right. Injuries and fatalities resulting from motor vehicle accidents are reflected in the rising costs of auto and health insurance, and costs to employers in the form of lost days at work. The taxpayer also loses by having to support emergency medical response teams and social programs for the disabled. Excuses, excuses! 1. "Seat belts are too uncomfortable." Of course, in a car accident -- without your seat belt -- you would smash into the steering column, slam into the dashboard, or crash through the windshield. This too, can be very uncomfortable. 2. "Seat belts wrinkle my clothes." Sometimes. Sitting also wrinkles clothes. Wearing clothes wrinkles clothes. Flying through a windshield REALLY wrinkles clothes. 3. "Only nerds wear seat belts." Really? It turns out that -- without seat belts -- nerds, jocks, cheerleaders, "A" students and average students would all fly through the windshield at the same rate. 4. "I'm a good driver." Nice as that is, good drivers can get hit by bad drivers, drunk drivers, or other good drivers with mechanical failures. Very few people intend to have accidents. 5. "Seat belts restrict my freedom of movement." This is true. Without your seat belt, you have all the freedom in the world -- to crash into your windshield, to slam into your car's interior, or to be thrown from your car and slide along the pavement. Freedom is great. 6. "It's too embarrassing to ask friends to use their seat belts." In 1984, 46,000 people died in car accidents. That same year, not one person died of embarrassment. Safety in car design was recognized as being important even in the earliest cars. In recent years, however, it has become a fundamental subject in its own right. Active safety measures have been designed to reduce the likelihood of a car being involved in an accident in the first place, while passive safety measures assume that a collision is inevitable and then aim to reduce the severity of the injuries to the road users involved. Until the late 1800's the British had a 2 mph speed limit for cars. There was an excellent reason for this. It was also required, for safety's sake, that each car carry two passengers with a third person walking in front. The job of the third person was to walk in front of the car to warn everyone that it was coming!